Subterranean termite invaSion originS

Subterranean termites in the genus Coptotermes Holmgren are structural pests that have become globally distributed beyond their native range in Southeast Asia. Because of their destructive nature, it is useful to understand the pathways of their spread. Additionally, phylogenetic analysis of evolutionary relationships may lead to increased accuracy of insecticide-based management on the basis that related species are likely to share similar physiology. Cytochrome oxidase II nucleotide sequences were used to construct phylogenies of subterranean termites using both maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood models. The data set included subterranean termites (Rhinotermitidae), including C. formosanus Shiraki, and used drywood termites (Kalotermitidae) as putative outgroups. Both methods supported the main results, that Hawaiian infestations likely originated in Asia and that some infestations in North America either came through Hawaii or originated independently from the same ancestral region as the Hawaiian infestations. Coptotermes formosanus, the most significant pest, appears to be paraphyletic with respect to several other species in the genus, and may represent two cryptic species. Other infestations in North America appear to have originated separately in Asia. A phylogeographic hypothesis based on non-molecular information was also supported by these data.